woensdag, december 30, 2020

BOOK REVIEW: Leos Müller, Neutrality in World History (Comparativ:Zeitschrift für Globalgeschichte und vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung VI (2019), 213-216

 

(image source: Comparativ)

I published a review of Leos Müller's insightful Neutrality in World History (Routledge, 2018) for the special issue "Narrating World History after the Global Turn: The Cambridge World History" of the journal Comparativ: Zeitschrift für Globalgeschichte und vergleichende Gesellschaftsforschung (ISSN 0940-3566).

Read more on the journal's website.

Update 18 December 2022: this book review is now available in open access

donderdag, december 17, 2020

CHAPTER: “Peace and Law”. In: I. DINGEL, M. ROHRSCHNEIDER, I. SCHMIDT-VOGES, S. WESTPHAL & J. WHALEY (Hrsg.). Handbuch Frieden im Europa der Frühen Neuzeit. Peace in Early Modern Europe. A Handbook [Reference] (Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2021), pp. 113-130. ISBN 9783110588057


(image: cover; source: DeGruyter)

Abstract:
Peace is a political construct in the early modern period. War was viewed as a process whereby two sovereign states pursued their rights by violence or artifice. Domestic and international law were intertwined in legal doctrine. Authors of natural law-treatises incorporated an ought-dimension in their writings to describe the framework in which sovereigns should act according to a systematic analysis of a morally established hierarchy. This chapter first provides an elementary overview of sources and historiographical traditions (I). Second, it presents the classical canon of doctrine, from Spanish neo-scholastics (Vitoria) to so-called positivism (Martens), as it developed in relation to the broader intellectual, religious and institutional context as Humanism, Enlightenment, confessionalisation, and the Empire shaped thinking about war and peace (II). Finally, the chapter offers a brief overview of the practical use of legal arguments: treaty collections and repositories of pamphlets were used inpolitical practice in conjunction with classical authors such as Gentili, Grotius or Pufendorf (III).
More information with DeGruyter. Publication expected in October 2020. (DOI 10.1515/9783110591316-006). 

(update: published 7 December 2020)

woensdag, oktober 28, 2020

INTERVIEW: Laïcité en corona-crisis in Frankrijk (Radio 1, De Wereld Vandaag)

 

(bron afbeelding: deboomhut.be)

Ik werd vandaag geïnterviewd door Xavier Taveirne in De Wereld Vandaag (Radio 1). Het gesprek kan hier herbeluisterd worden.

vrijdag, oktober 23, 2020

OPINIE: Samuel Paty verenigt Frankrijk rond de Republiek (De Morgen.be, 22 oktober 2020)

(bron afbeelding: De Morgen)

Ik schreef een stuk voor De Morgen over de gebeurtenissen en reacties in Frankrijk van de afgelopen dagen.

Eerste paragraaf:

De barbaarse moord op leerkracht geschiedenis Samuel Paty wordt wereldwijd gezien als een aanval op de vrijheid van meningsuiting. Dat is terecht, maar de specifieke Franse context is ook belangrijk. Leerkrachten zoals Paty genieten prestige als ‘instituteurs de la nation’. Zij maken kinderen tot burgers van de Republiek, en putten daar hun fierheid uit. Een carrière als vastbenoemd leerkracht na staatsexamen is nog steeds voor veel Franse studenten een eerbaar carrièrepad, ondanks de beperkte verloning. Toppolitici als Georges Pompidou en Lionel Jospin waren kinderen van onderwijzers, en hebben zelf les gegeven.

Lees verder op de site van de krant

donderdag, september 03, 2020

CHAPTER: "Portalis le jeune et le droit des gens" in: Raphaël CAHEN & Nicolas LAURENT-BONNE (dir.), Joseph-Marie Portalis. Diplomate, magistrat et législateur (Aix-en-Provence: PUAM, 2020), 153-180, ISBN 978-2-7314-1174-4

(image source: PUAM)

Abstract:
Joseph-Marie Portalis, who presided over the French Court of Cassation as its first president for 23 years, never published a global treatise on the law of nations, but had a strong interest in the law of nature and the law of nations. Hence, two of his publications can inform us on his deeper-rooted convictions. One is his famous report presented to the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1840 on the prize question concerning the development of the law of nations since the Peace of Westphalia. A second example is his treatise on the nature of war, presented at the Academy during the Crimean War and published in 1856 by Vergé. I argue that national sovereignty, religion and a dislike of the perceived excesses of 18th century doctrine are essential to understand Portalis "the younger", even if he does not escalate his thinking to the likes of de Maistre.
(more on the book here)

maandag, augustus 10, 2020

CALL FOR PAPERS/INSCRIPTION: Section histoire du droit et des institutions, 58e Congrès de la Fédération des Cercles d'archéologie et d'histoire de Belgique (Tournai, 19-21 Août 2021); DATE LIMITE 30 septembre 2020

  Congrès Wapi 2020



Les inscriptions pour le 11e Congrès de l’Association des Cercles francophones d’histoire et d’archéologie de Belgique sont ouvertes. Il était prévu à Tournai du jeudi 20 au dimanche 23 août 2020, mais a été reporté au 19-21 août 2021.

Ce congrès sera aussi le 58e Congrès de la Fédération des Cercles d’archéologie et d’histoire de Belgique, Il prend place en Wallonie picarde sera organisé par trois sociétés hainuyères associées pour la circonstance : le Cercle royal d’histoire et d’archéologie d’Ath et de la région, la Société d’histoire de Mouscron et de la région et la Société royale d’histoire et d’archéologie de Tournai. Il bénéficiera en outre de la collaboration de Hannonia. Centre d’information et de contact des cercles d’histoire, d’archéologie et de folklore du Hainaut.

Les communications auront une durée maximum de 20 minutes. Le choix de la langue est libre (français, néerlandais, allemand). Le français demeure la langue officielle du Congrès.

Une section d'histoire du droit et des institutions sera organisée.

Pour envoyer votre proposition pour cette section, contacter le prof. Frederik Dhondt.

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De inschrijvingen voor het 11e Congrès de l’Association des Cercles francophones d’histoire et d’archéologie de Belgique zijn heropend. Het congres was oorspronkelijk gepland in Doornik van donderdag 20 tot zondag 23 augustus 2020, maar is nu verdaagd naar 19-21 augustus 2021.

Communicatie duurt maximaal 20 minuten. De taalkeuze is vrij ( Frans, Nederlands, Duits), hoewel Frans de officiële taal van het congres blijft.

Er wordt een sectie over de geschiedenis van het recht en de instellingen georganiseerd. Om een bijdrage voor deze sectie voor te stellen, contacteer prof. Frederik Dhondt.

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Plus d'informations/Meer informatie ici/hier
Pour l'inscription/Voor de registratie, cliquez ici/hier

zondag, augustus 02, 2020

WORKING PAPER: "Jean Rousset de Missy et les Intérêts présens des puissances de l’Europe: territoires, souveraineté et argumentation juridique pratique"



Abstract:
Known as a journalist or 'compiler', Jean Rousset de Missy (1682-1762) contributed on the to the world's first treaty collections, the Corps Universel Diplomatique du Droit des Gens (1726-1731, edited by Jean Dumont). This contribution focuses on Les Intérêts présens des puissances de l'Europe (1733), a two-volume work published to serve as a practical alternative to the 8 volumes in-f° of the Corps Universel. Rousset discusses treaty obligations undertaken by sovereign entities, and links them up with an analysis of their long-term geopolitical interests. I sketch the impact of the Peace Treaties of Utrecht (1713) on Rousset's work, and argue that his treatment of the matter gives a unique insight into argumentative strategies. Parties in a quarrel use arguments drawn from the law of nature, Roman law, canon law, customary law, feudal law or domestic law, and only seldom refer to law of nations doctrine. Rousset's synthesis at the end of every section is representative of diplomatic practice in his time. Treaties contained political compromises. In order to be effective, they needed precedence over domestic norms. In a final section, I examine Rousset's treatment of Savoy and Spain after 1713.

Read the paper on the OSF: DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/ASZDM

zondag, juli 05, 2020

BOEKBESPREKING: "O. MORETEAU, K. MODÉER & A. MASFERRER (eds). Comparative Legal History [Research Handbooks in Comparative Law] (Cheltenham: Elgar, 2018)', Tijdschrift voor Privaatrecht LVI (2019), nr. 3-4, 1394-1400

(bron afbeelding: Elgar)

Het Tijdschrift voor Privaatrecht LVI (2019), nr. 3-4 publiceert op pagina's 1394 tot en met 1400 een bespreking die ik maakte van het Research Handbook Comparative Legal History dat in 2018 bij Elgar verscheen.

Meer informatie hier.

zaterdag, juli 04, 2020

INTERVIEW: "remaniement" (VRT/TerZake, 3 juli 2020)

(bron afbeelding: Twitter)

Ik werd door TerZake geïnterviewd over de "remaniement" in Frankrijk.

Het fragment kan bekeken worden vanaf 32:00 op VRTNU.

vrijdag, juli 03, 2020

INTERVIEW: Nieuwe Eerste Minister in Frankrijk (Radio 1 - De Wereld Vandaag)

(bron afbeelding: TVVisie)

Ik werd geïnterviewd door Gert Geens in De Wereld Vandaag over de beslissing van Emmanuel Macron om van Eerste Minister te wisselen.

Het interview kan hier worden beluisterd.

dinsdag, juni 30, 2020

OPINIE: "In Frankrijk deelt links rake klappen uit aan president Macron" (De Morgen, 30 juni 2020)

(bron afbeelding: CIM)

Ik schreef een opinie voor De Morgen.

Eerste paragraaf:
Het was enigszins verwacht na de eerste ronde, maar de einduitslag van de gemeenteraadsverkiezingen in Frankrijk verraste toch nog. Om maar een voorbeeld te nemen: iedereen dacht dat Bordeaux bij het rechtse LR zou blijven. Aan het einde haalde de linkse lijst het, en bleek zelfs neo-trotskist Philippe Poutou tien procent van de stemmen te hebben gehaald. Niemand gaf twee jaar geleden veel voor haar overleven, maar Anne Hidalgo (PS) haalt in Parijs de helft van de stemmen. Martine Aubry, de moeder van de 35-urenweek, overleefde nipt. Toch kon ze haar blijdschap over het algemene resultaat moeilijk verstoppen. Zelfs in 2008 onder Sarkozy was de uitslag voor links niet zo verbluffend goed als nu..
Lees het volledige stuk bij De Morgen.

INTERVIEW: "Groene golf overspoelt Frankrijk" (Het Nieuwsblad, 30 juni 2020)

(bron afbeelding: CIM)

Ik werd geïnterviewd door Jef Van Hoofstat in Het Nieuwsblad van 30 juni 2020.

Lees de tekst hier.

vrijdag, juni 26, 2020

OPINIE: Macron na corona, meer van hetzelfde ? (De Morgen, 26 juni 2020)

(bron afbeelding: CIM)

Ik schreef een opinie voor De Morgen.

Eerste paragraaf:
Zondag trekken de kiezers in 4.855 Franse gemeenten onder corona-beperkingen naar de stembus. De eerste ronde ging nog door in het eerste weekend van de lockdown (15 maart). Veel (gepensioneerde) kiezers bleven thuis. In de meeste (kleinere) gemeenten is er geen tweede ronde, maar in de grote steden is de strijd nog open. LREM, de jonge partij van de president, deed het slecht. De partij komt niet in beeld als alternatief op plaatsen waar de president nochtans wél scoorde in 2017. De kandidate die in Rijsel gelanceerd werd tegen Martine Aubry, moest zowel PS als groenen met een straatlengte laten voorgaan. In Bordeaux staan links en rechts gelijk, met meer dan 20 procent voorsprong op de partij van de president. In Marseille haalde LREM nog geen 8 procent. Gérard Collomb, de PS-nestor die Macron steunde in 2017 maar de regering verliet na een jaar, heeft in Lyon een alliantie gesloten met rechts, tégen LREM. ‘Niet de windhaan is gedraaid, maar de wind’: als politieke overlever Collomb van kant wisselt, is er waarschijnlijk iets grondig veranderd.
Lees het volledige stuk bij De Morgen.

woensdag, juni 24, 2020

ARTIKEL: 'Het Verdrag van Kortrijk van 28 maart 1820 en de Frans-Belgische grens: Une manière plus précise et invariable' (De Leiegouw LXXXII (2020), 61-80)

(bron afbeelding: Wikimedia Commons)

In het kader van de tweehonderdste verjaardag van het Verdrag van Kortrijk (28 maart 1820), dat de grens afbakende tussen het Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden en Frankrijk (en dus ook de huidige Belgisch-Franse grens mee bepaalde), schreef ik een stukje voor het heemkundig tijdschrift De Leiegouw.

De tekst verscheen een dag of tien terug en kan worden gelezen door een nummer van het tijdschrift te bestellen. Het verdrag kan worden geraadpleegd in de belangrijkste verdragencollecties, zoals Oxford Historical Treaties Online (71 Consolidated Treaty Series 1) of de Recueil des traités de la France (zie hieronder).


maandag, juni 22, 2020

ARTICLE: "Renonciations et possession tranquille : l’abbé de Saint-Pierre, la paix d’Utrecht et la diplomatie de la Régence" (Clio@Thémis: revue européenne électronique d'histoire du droit/European Electronic Journal in Legal History n° 18 (2020) (OPEN ACCESS)

(image source: Clio@Thémis)

Abstract:
Abbot Saint-Pierre (1658-1743) is one of the most studied early 18th century political thinkers. His “utopian” project of perpetual peace was published during the Utrecht Peace Congress (1712-1713), where plenipotentiaries from various European powers ended the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). As Merle Perkins demonstrated, Saint-Pierre’s conceptions on the state of nature and man’s violent instinct were similar to Hobbes’. Saint-Pierre, by contrast, believed in the possibility to overcome the violent state of nature. The key element here was the freezing of reciprocal legal claims by monarchs, which were always a source of conflict. Leaving quarrels behind, the “European Union” would be able to ensure the “tranquil possession” of sovereigns. The diplomatic context after the Peace of Utrecht was more compatible with his position than his first version (1712), wherein he castigated balance of power-politics. The peace was based on the mutual renunciations by the most prominent pretenders to the Spanish Succession. Saint-Pierre redacted the 1717 edition of his Projet to convince the Regent’s diplomats. Their efforts focused on finding a solution for the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, and the Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. The context of Regency diplomacy explains the attempts of Saint-Pierre to deliver a credible message, able to convince the actors of French foreign policy.
Résumé:
L’abbé de Saint-Pierre (1658-1743) est un des penseurs les plus étudiés du début du dix-huitième siècle. Son projet « utopique » de paix perpétuelle fut publié pendant le Congrès de paix d’Utrecht (1712-1713), où des plénipotentiaires de diverses puissances européennes mirent fin à la guerre de Succession d’Espagne (1701-1714). Comme le souligne Merle Perkins, les conceptions de Saint-Pierre, comme celles de Hobbes, partaient de la crainte comme fondement de l’ordre social et de la nécessité d’un arbitrage obligatoire. Saint-Pierre croyait en le dépassement de l’état de nature violent. L’élément-clé était la fixation des prétentions juridiques réciproques des souverains, source de querelles. En abandonnant les querelles, l’ « Union européenne » pourrait assurer la « possession tranquille » des souverains. Le contexte diplomatique après la paix d’Utrecht était davantage compatible avec sa proposition que celui du début de la conférence, où Saint-Pierre fustigeait l’équilibre des pouvoirs. La paix était basée sur les renonciations réciproques des principaux prétendants à la succession d’Espagne. Saint-Pierre écrivit l’édition de 1717 de son Projet pour convaincre les diplomates du Régent, qui s’appliquaient à introduire une solution semblable pour les duchés de Parme et de Plaisance, et pour le Grand-Duché de Toscane. Le contexte de la diplomatie de la Régence explique les tentatives de l’abbé de formuler un message crédible, susceptible de convaincre les acteurs de la politique étrangère française. 
Read the full article here. (DOI 10.35562/cliothemis.316)

This article is part of a special issue "Histoire du droit international", which I had the honour to co-edit with Raphaël Cahen (VUB) and Elisabetta Fiocchi Malaspina (Zürich). Our common introduction ('L’essor récent de l’histoire du droit international') can be found here (DOI 10.35562/cliothemis.298).

vrijdag, juni 12, 2020

FOCUS SECTION: With R. CAHEN & E. FIOCCHI MALASPINA (ed)., Training, Ideas and Practices. The Law of Nations in the Long Eighteenth Century (Journal of the History of International Law/Revue d'histoire du droit international XXII (2019)) (OPEN ACCESS)


(image source: Brill)

The Journal of the History of International Law/Revue d'histoire du droit international published a focus section dedicated to "Training, Ideas and Practices. The Law of Nations in the Long Eighteenth Century", which I coordinated with Raphaël Cahen (VUB/CORE) and Elisabetta Fiocchi Malaspina (University of Zurich). This section results from the conference co-organised in Paris by CORE, the Maison de la Recherche and the Fondation Biermans-Lapôtre, with the generous support of the CIERA.

Further papers from this conference are due to appear in a thematic issue of the open access-journal Clio@Thémis:Revue électronique d'histoire du droit.

Our common introduction can be read here: DOI 10.1163/15718050-12340141 (open access)

maandag, juni 08, 2020

BOOK REVIEW: Maris KÖPCKE, A Short History of Legal Validity and Invalidity. Foundations of Public and Private Law (Forum Historiae Iuris)

(image source: Twitter)

I reviewed the book of Maris Köpcke, A Short History of Legal Validity and Invalidity. Foundations of Public and Private Law (Cambridge: Intersentia, 2019) for the Forum Historiae Iuris.

First paragraph:
This book (as the title indicates) is a short and breath-taking overview of the history of validity in Western legal culture from Roman law to constitutional control.1Köpcke tackles an essential normative problem: what is the role of lawyers’ ‘intentional say-so’ (8) in changing ‘legal positions’? How did the ‘legal technique’ (p. 3) of validity originate in private law, to assess or empower legal ‘transactions’ (translation of Savigny’s Rechtsgeschäft)? If transactions (contract, testament) exist in their own, validity is the technique used by lawyers to restrain or remove them. Hence private law’s initial focus on invalidity (8). How did it develop in the ius commune, and, finally, how did it apply to public decisions (administrative adjudication) and law-making (judicial review)? Constitutionalism (implying the precedence of fundamental norms over legislation) is presented as ‘just another sense’ of the ‘long-standing technique’ of validity (7).
The full text is available in open access here.

zondag, maart 29, 2020

ARCHIVES: 'le Traité d'Utrecht qui n'existe plus !'


(Fireworks celebrating the conclusion of the Peace of Utrecht; source: Europeana/INHA (free of rights))

The Peace of Utrecht (11 April 1713) whereby the War of the Spanish Succession ended between France on the one hand and the Dutch Republic, Portugal, Savoy and Great Britain, on the other hand, was based on the principle of the "Balance of Power", which -in my view, recently endorsed by a leading scholar in a collective work, gave rise to the use of norm hierarchy as legal argument. Otherwise, the competing and mutually exclusive claims of the Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs would have created a dreaded Universal Monarchy in Europe.


During my PhD research between 2009 and 2013, several fellow scholars asked whether, why and where I could find the exact expression "balance of power". My usual reply is that this question is not very helpful if one aims to understand the operation of early modern diplomacy. The use of a specific term is often indeterminate and open to political instrumentalisation (at many instances, "balance of power" can be used to cover anything). Conversely, the concept is often identified implicitly, using interchangeable ideas such as "tranquility of Europe".

Doctrinal constructions are unhelpful to grasp the significance of terms used in political and diplomatic documents. Vattel's use of the term "équilibre" in the 1750s does not necessarily cover the same doctrinal and political reality as that of Torcy or Matthew Prior at the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. In my understanding, "Balance of Power" refers back to every polity in the European system's right to self-preservation, guaranteed collectively by upholding the fundamental treaties which are based on a division of power between the main players. The concept is both static (guaranteeing political order, and thus the norm pacta sunt servanda) and dynamic (in the sense that negotiated amendments are possible, and that any member of the system will frame his arguments capable of convincing counterparts to take up arms against perturbers).


The ideological construction of "Balance of Power" in domestic or international public opinion is distinct from use in inter-sovereign relations. If this is purely seen as a devise to stop a perceived threat of Catholic hegemony in Europe, the concept becomes utterly unhelpful international relations, were treaties, "even if contracted with infidels", retain their binding force. Catholic France and Protestant Britain upheld the principle of balance of power after 1713, irrespective of religious, economic or maritime opposite interests and ideologies.

***

The only realistic approach is a close reading of every archival document one encounters. A fine example is the memorandum entitled Condition actuelle de la hollande considerée par rapport au Traité d'Utrecht, kept in the French Diplomatic Archives' fascinating fund Mémoires et Documents, in vol. 60 ("Hollande - documents divers, 1713-1743"). The document is dated -erroneously- 1714 (see inventory), as will transpire from the citations below. It is attributed to Nicolas-Louis Le Dran (1687-1774), a top civil servant in the Bureaux des Affaires Étrangères, who served in various services (including the archival service) throughout Louis XV's reign. Le Dran is the author of countless memoranda of varying length. In 2015, Christian Fournier defended an impressive MA Thesis on this tireless writer at the University Paris-Sorbonne.

The Peace of Utrecht was not a joyous event for the Dutch Republic, which had suffered from the efforts undertaken in the Grand Alliance (1701-1712) consisting of the Emperor (and most German princes), Britain and the Dutch Republic (later on: Savoy, Portugal) against the Two Crowns of Spain and France. Britain dropped out of the war in May 1712, after concluding preliminary articles of peace with France in the Fall of 1711. Dutch and German forces lost the battle of Denain against the French army of Villars. Whereas the Dutch Regents had insisted throughout the war on a considerable Barrier in the Southern Low Countries against France, the initial British promises watered down to a restricted version of this "security" in 1715, which would gradually be watered down and ultimately denunciated by the Austrian Habsburgs.

The transcription below does not modify the initial spelling. Although there is little constancy in spelling, early 18th century grammar does tend to be rigorous. If the text does contain grammatically surprising expressions, I will indicate them with a [sic].

***

Condition actuelle de la hollande considerée par rapport au Traité d'Utrecht (AMAE, M&D Hollande, v. 60, ff. 6r°-13r°)
La loi fondamentale posée pour base du Traité d'Utrecht a eté d'établir un Equilibre et des limites politiques entre les Etats; dont les interêts respectifs avoient fait le sujet de la guerre, de sorte que leurs forces ne fussent point doresnavant à craindre, et ne pussent causer aucune jalousie.
This introduction clearly reflects what I stated above and in an article on the evolution of legal argumentation around the Spanish Succession in 2011: a compromise between both camps' claims was necessary; otherwise, peace could never be lasting.
Pour mettre cette loi en execution, il a été convenu que lesdits Etats ne [f6v°] pourroient s'étendre au delà de ce qui etoit resté dans le Traité, soit relativement au commerce et à la navigation, soit contre l'union des differentes couronnes ensemble afin, dit le Traité, que plusieurs Puissances etant reünies en une seule, la balance de l'egalité qu'on veut assûrer, ne penche point à l'avantage de l'une d'Elles, au prejudice des autres, et que lesd. Puissances inspirent moins de craintes, et ne puissent aspirer à la monarchie [f7r°] universelle.
A paragraph full of interesting concepts. First, the author of this memorandum distinguished between two aspects of state power: commerce and navigation (recently treated in the collective volume Balance of Power-Balance of Trade) and 'the union of several crowns together'. The 'balance of equality' created by the treaty ought to ensure that no of the contracting parties could obtain an edge. As such, fears of a Universal Monarchy should be dissipated.

I explained elsewhere that dynastic interests linked the French Regent and George I of Great Britain in their reaffirmation of the Treaties of Utrecht (as we can observe in a bilateral treaty of alliance in November 1716; in the Treaty of the Triple Alliance of January 1717 and in the Quadruple Alliance of August 1718). Of course, this required several domestic decisions on policy priorities.

As I explained in an article in the open access-journal Legatio, French merchants complained on British depredations in the Mediterranean, although both crowns were allied in a war of intervention against Spanish aggression in Italy. The imperial history of the eighteenth century point not only to the Treaties of Utrecht, but also to the Treaty of Paris of February 1763, whereby France ceded substantial parts of its American and Indian Empire to Britain. The pre-history of this imperial clash has been studied in detail by Armin Reese.

While preserving a balance on the continent, Britain had obtained privileges in the Spanish Empire, and opened trade with Brazil through the Methuen Treaty (whereby Portugal joined the anti-French coalition in 1703). The legal reality of treaty clauses did not correspond to practice. Widespread interloping caused conflict with Spain. Throughout British diplomatic correspondence, George I's and George II's ambassadors in Paris had to accommodate maritime and colonial conflicts. Throughout the period after the Peace of Utrecht, part of the French court was more inclined to an alliance of the two Bourbon powers, which resulted in the 1721 and 1733 Family Pacts.

It is thus not surprising to read the following paragraphs:
Au mépris d'une loi si solemnelle et si claire, la couronne britannique n'a cessé depuis la Paix d'Utrecht de s'étendre par les divers avantages de commerce et navigation qu'Elle a extorqués de l'Espagne, par les empietemens qu'Elle a faits sur les colonies de la France et de l'Espagne en Amerique, et le despotisme qu'Elle a exercé et exerce sur toutes les nations commerçantes. Enfin Elle n'a fait aucun pas depuis cette Epoque qui n'ait eté dirigé vers [f7v°] la monarchie universelle des mers dont Elle est prête de s'emparer pour toûjours, si l'on n'y met de promts et puissants obstacles.
The author of the memorandum clearly accused Britain of seizing the 'Universal Monarchy of the Seas', and exerting a 'despotism'. Spanish commercial concessions at Utrecht are depicted as having been 'extorted', hinting at a vitiated consent. It is tempting to liken this to comments on British naval hegemony during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (where the 'Système Continental' confronted a tough British opponent) or the American War of Independence (where France, Spain and the Dutch Republic opposed British maritime supremacy and the 1780 League of Neutrals originated). The backlash against British imperial designs started in the 1720s. The Spanish siege of Granada in 1727 and the British blockade of the Spanish silver fleet in Portobelo foreshadowed the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739-1748).

The memorandum, however, was not directed at Spain, but at the Dutch Republic. Throughout the War of the Spanish Succession, France had tried to lure the Dutch away from the Grand Alliance, as I explained earlier.
La hollande, qui auroit dû s'y opposer, et pour son propre interêt, et pour l'execution des Traités, y a au contraire infiniment contribué par le changement de son gouvernement, contre les principes du Traité d'Utrecht et par la complaisance pernicieuse qui en a resulté de sa part, pour les projets ambitieux de l'angleterre.
The Dutch Republic had been invited to joint the Treaty of the Quadruple Alliance (2 August 1718), designed to stop the Spanish invasion of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718). This did not happen. Only in 1725, at the Treaty of Hanover (September 1725) were the Dutch prepared to join an alliance and take up arms jointly with Britain and France. The Dutch had remained aloof of Franco-Imperial confrontation during the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735), and had concluded a convention with France on the neutralization of the Austrian Low Countries.

In the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748), the Dutch Republic had become an ally of George II of Britain (and Hanover) and Archduchess Maria Theresia, Queen of Bohemia and Hungary (whose hereditary lands were threatened by Bavaria, Prussia and France). The French army invaded the Austrian Low Countries and occupied them. At the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1748), Louis XV renounced to the effective annexation of these territories. Recent research has insisted on the considerable military forces assembled by the United Provinces during this conflict.


[f8r°] Quand les traités d'Utrecht ont eté conclus, les Provinces unies formoient une Republique composée de plusieurs Etats reünis sous les Loix d'une confederation qui devoit être immuable. Telle est la Republique dont l'erection a eté protegée par la France, et qui a subsisté encore long tems après le Traité d'Utrecht. Tel est le gouvernement qui faisoit le titre de sa consideration et de son rang entre les autres Puissances de l'Europe et le fondement de leur confiance pour elle [f9v°]. C'est avec cette Republique que Louis XIV. a conclu le traité d'Utrecht, et que Louis XV son successeur a promis de l'executer; mais le Gouvernement de cette République est entierement changé par l'introduction du stathouderat, tel qu'il a eté etabli. La Hollande n'est plus Republique que de nom. Elle est devenüe une Province d'angleterre regie selon les maximes et les vües de cette couronne. Dabord par un Prince Gendre du Roi d'angleterre puis par une Princesse fille du même Roi, actuellement par son [f10r°] petit fils, et dans la suite par des Princes et Princesses leurs descendans, tenant et fort près à la maison qui regne en Angleterre.
The author of this memorandum insists on the confederal nature of the Dutch Republic in the early 18th century. At the decease of Stadholder and King William III, influential provinces as Holland and Zealand did not appoint a new successor in this office. This ended in 1747, when William IV of Orange (1711-1751), a relative of William IV, could reinstate the power of the House of Orange (I refer to English and Dutch literature on the subject). The paragraph refers to his marriage to Anne, daughter of George II of Britain, in 1734. The House of Orange is portrayed as dependent to the ruling family in Britain. geographically, the North-Eastern provinces of the Republic were in the same geopolitical theater as Hanover.
Les Stathouderats precedents etoient passagers, mais l'etablissement du Stadhouderat actuel est un acte par lequel les Provinces unies se sont donné [sic] pour toûjours un chef revêtu d'une autorité incompatible avec leur liberté absolüe; cette dignité est devenüe perpetuelle et hereditaire, en sorte qu'elle n'est plus attachée au merite d'un chef librement Elu pour un tems limité, mais [f10v°] au hazard perpetuel de la naissance d'un Prince allié par le sang à la maison d'hanovre, pour comble de préjudice, relativement aux Provinces-unies, et a toute l'Europe ce stathouderat peut non seulement être exercé par un tuteur ou une tutrice, pendant la minorité du stathouder mais il est encore transmissible aux femelles, de sorte que par un renversement de toutes les Loix de l'Etat, une femme peut être le chef d'une pretenduë Republique [f11r°] qui n'a jamais admis aux charges de son gouvernement que des hommes, et cette femme deja alliée par le sang à la maison d'hanovre peut transmettre son autorité à son mari, et la faire passer dans une maison etrangere, devoüée comme Elle a l'angleterre, et ennemie soit de la France, soit de la Republique même.
The passage is clearly hinting at the opposition between provinces and stadholder, and presenting France as the protector of liberties, analogous to the role played by French diplomats both in the Republic and in the Holy Roman Empire (where France formally acted as the guarantor of Protestant freedom). Female succession is likened to an open door to the House of Hanover (through a Regency, or simply through succession). The praise for elected heads of state should not be confounded with the French domestic theory of sovereignty, which was modeled on hereditary monarchy.
Il est donc certain que par l'établissement de ce stathouderat hereditaire et feminin, les hollandois ont renversé leur Gouvernement et [f11v°] y en ont substitué un tout nouveau, contraire à la loi fondamentale du Traité d'Utrecht, en ce qu'il rend la hollande assujetie aux vües de l'angleterre, et qu'il étend la puissance de celleci au prejudice du commerce universel, et des libertés de l'Europe entiere.
The claim in this paragraph is far-reaching. It implies that the Treaties of Utrecht had established a 'freeze' on internal constitutional arrangements, rendering changes conditional to the agreement of the European great powers. Changing the political system of Holland would overthrow both the balance between dynasties (les libertés de l'Europe entière) and perturb the equitable distribution of commerce throughout the world (au préjudice du commerce universel). Although the application the Dutch Republic feels overblown, France and Britain did try to influence (succesfully) the succession in the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Tuscany in a long process from 1718 to 1737, invoking the principles behind the Peace of Utrecht (neutrality of and balance of power in Italy, limiting the seemingly unfettered exercice of Imperial feudal power).
Il resulte de là que le traité d'Utrecht est totalement éteint dans les circonstances presentes. Il l'est entre la France et la Grande-Bretagne par la guerre survenüe entre ces 2. couronnnes [f12r°]. il est anneanti entre l'Espagne et l'Angleterre par le parti que la Cour Britannique a pris de rompre avec celle de Madrid. Enfin ce Traité n'existe plus entre la France l'Espagne et les hollandois par le renversement de leur gouvernement, et par les consequences funestes qui en ont resulté, au moyen de leur devoüement à l'angleterre, lequel est si aveugle, que malgré les excès continüels que la nation angloise commet contre leurs vaisseaux, ils ne cessent [f12v°] de travailler pour lui procurer la balance du pouvoir maritime, et se rendent à la fois victimes et complices de l'agrandissement et present et futur des anglois.
This paragraph hints at a clausula rebus sic stantibus (implicit clause allowing for the extinction of a contracting party's obligations when a fundamental change in circumstances occurs, which could not have been foreseen by the parties at the conclusion of their agreement). The Franco-British War of the Austrian Succession had 'extinguished' the Treaties of Utrecht between them. Likewise, Spain and Britain were at a rupture. As a consequence, the treaty had been broken between them. By its internal changes, and due to a lack of opposition to British 'excès continüels', the Dutch Republic 'procured the maritime balance of power' to Britain, and would be at the same time 'victim and accomplice' of the expansion of British power.
Dans cet etat il y auroit de la duperie de la part des couronnes de France et d'Espagne, d'executer en particulier les stipulations de commerce du Traité d'Utrecht avec les hollandois tandis qu'ils les transgressent en faveur des anglois; la duperie seroit encore plus grande dans la circonstance de la guerre avec l'Espagne. Le dessein des anglois etant [f12r°] d'aneantir le commerce universel; le plus grand moyen d'y reüssir est la non interruption du leur et ce sont les hollandois qui leur procureront, comme dans la derniere guerre avec l'Espagne, la continüation de leur commerce dans ce Royaume, en y introduisant sous le plomb d'hollande les Etoffes angloises, et autres productions de leurs manufactures.
The author of the memorandum tries to establish causality and connection between the separate bilateral commercial conventions concluded between the Dutch Republic and France, the Dutch Republic and Spain, on the one hand, and those between Britain and Spain, on the other hand. The ratio of his argumentation consists in the impossibility to uphold separate trade agreements concluded in Utrecht, if one of the partners absorbed another one. If the British influence in the Dutch Republic became predominant while the other trading relationships continued, Britain would automatically obtain 'universal trade', just by 'not interrupting' its existing trade relationships. France and Spain would commit 'de la duperie' (fraud) if they did not consider their own engagements to have been terminated....
C'est la prevoyance de cette manoeuvre, qui a rendu necessaires les stipulations de commerce contenües dans le Traité entre la France et l'Espagne [f12v°] elles ne sont point contraires au Traité d'Utrecht qui n'existe plus.  Elles sont indispensables puisque si l'on ne coupe les ressources du commerce des anglais, leur projet d'anéantir le commerce universel est consommé et que le salut de l'Europe est attaché aux obstacles efficaces qui seront opposes à ce pernicieux dessein. Par consequent il n'est pas possible de changer de conduite avec les hollandois, à moins qu'ils ne changent de sisteme par rapport à l'angleterre, et qu'ils [f13r°] ne donnent des preuves autentiques d'un concours sincere à la deffense de la liberté du commerce et de la navigation de l'Europe.
This paragraph recapitulates the author's main point: the treaties of Utrecht ceased to exist (in his view). If the general interest of Europe commanded a different line of conduct, this could impose itself as a priority over respecting previous engagements.

***

What should one conclude from reading this document ? Foreign policy professionals were charged with advising their political masters on possible courses of action. This implied combining political and economic interest with the prevailing treaty framework. The carelessness and ease deployed in pushing aside the commercial conventions concluded in Utrecht in 1713 seem to indicate the irrelevance of the law of nations.

Yet, the reasoning embedded in this document mobilises a typical lawyers' instrumentarium. The document dates from at least 34 years after the peace of Utrecht (since the Stadholderate was only reinstated in 1747). The commercial conventions of 1713 had not fixed market shares, but had created conditions wherein Spain had to open part of its overseas commerce to Britain, while assuring privileges to French and Dutch merchants. The author of the memorandum attempts to find legal arguments to check the deployment of (perceived) British influence over Dutch trade, and tries to mobilise the interconnectedness of the various bilateral treaties concluded in Utrecht. He furthermore clearly distinguishes between balance of power als 'fundamental law' of the treaties concluded in Utrecht, and the treaties themselves. This is necessary to impose an interpretation conformable to the prevailing distribution of power in 1713, and to explain why the normative force of these bilateral treaties could not cope with the changes intervened after thirty years. Allegations of causality, principal and accessory, specific cases and general principles... abund in diplomatic correspondence. Their use is evident in a process of reciprocal communication and persuasion: the negotiating party needs to be convinced of the justification provided for a course of action that is framed as much as possible to be in conformity with behaviour agreed to earlier by the addressee of the message. The memorandum does not resort to a literal quoting of treaty clauses, precisely because its author intends to destroy the underpinnings of a binding treaty. Yet, this happens frequently when diplomats try to conceive of specific new engagements, or interpretative and executory clauses of earlier broader agreements. 

Second, this is a reminder of the non-negligible role played by trade and colonies in the determination of both short and long term strategy, rejoining the recent interest for the connected study of treaties of peace and commerce. Even if hints can be deduced from the mentions of the House of Hanover, no literal references to the geostrategic theatre between Paris and the Rhine are put forward. This memorandum is framed to be compatible with the interests of the Spanish crown, and alluring to the Provincial Estates, or the anti-orange party, in the Dutch Republic.

maandag, maart 09, 2020

LEMMA: "Cornelis Van Bynkershoek, Verhandelingen van Staatszaken, 1740": in Georges MARTYN, Louis BERKVENS & Paul BROOD (eds.), Juristen die schreven en bleven. Nederlandstalige rechtsgeleerde klassiekers (Pro Memorie. Bijdragen tot de Rechtsgeschiedenis der Nederlanden XIX (2019), nr. 2), pp. 72-75 [ISBN 9789087048488/ISSN 15667146]

(bron afbeelding: Standen & Landen)

Ik leverde een bijdrage over Cornelis van Bynkershoek's Quaestionum Iuris Publici Libri Duo (in de Nederlandse vertaling door de Ruusscher) voor het verzamelwerk Juristen die Schreven en Bleven (eds. Georges Martyn, Louis Berkvens & Paul Brood).

Het werk kan u integraal raadplegen op Google Books, zoals hieronder:


De bijdrage kan u verkrijgen als abonnee van Pro Memorie, of los kopen bij uitgever Verloren (ISBN 9789087048488).

Zie VUB PURE. Door de overname van het tijdschrift door Amsterdam University Press is dit artikel met een DOI in open access gekomen (https://doi.org/10.5117/PM2019.2.015.DHON).

maandag, maart 02, 2020

BOOK REVIEW: "ALIMENTO (Antonella) and STAPEBROEK (Koen) eds., The Politics of Commercial Treaties in the 18th Century. Balance of Power, Balance of Trade" (RBPH-BTFG CXVII (2019), nr. 2, pp. 611-618)

(image source: bol)

The Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire/Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Filologie en Geschiedenis published a review I wrote on the edited collection The Politics of Commercial Treaties in the 18th Century, edited by Antonella Alimento and Koen Stapelbroek.

This text will become available in open access on persée in two years.

More information on Pure. (Web of Science 000541609100027)

CONFERENCE PAPER: "Legal arguments in the debate on recognition of Italian independence in Belgian parliament (November 1861)" [Entangled international and national legal orders in the long 19th century] (Zurich, University of Zurich, 2-3 March 2020)




I had the pleasure to deliver a paper at a conference organised jointly by the University of Zurich
(Chair of Legal History) and the Research Group CORE (VUB). Program below.

Abstract:
Abstract
The debate on the recognition of Victor Emanuel II of Piemonte-Sardinia (1820-1878)’s title as King of Italy in November 1861[1] pitted Belgian Liberals and Catholics against each other.[2] Precisely the years 1860-1870 were the high point of conflict between the radical ultramontanist Catholics and their counterparts, freemason liberals, who challenged the authoritarian ecclesiastical system and its de facto monopoly on education. Catholic volunteers joined the Papal Zouaves, pretending not to be bound by international treaties.[3] Catholic capital was invested in Austrian, papal and Neapolitan assets.[4]
The constitutional principles advanced by Cavour (extension of the 1848 Statuto Albertino) created sympathy with the Belgian liberal party.[5] By contrast, a substantial number of Catholic MPs thought recognition would violate Belgium’s obligation of permanent neutrality under article VII of the Treaty of London (19 Apr 1839, 88 CTS 421).[6] Francis II of the Two-Sicilies (1836-1894)’s fate was likened to that of the Belgian monarch in case of a foreign invasion. The extension of the Statuto in the South was compared to that of the Dutch constitution in Belgium (1814-1815), or to the French invasion (1792, 1794). Comparisons with the Belgian revolt (1830-1832)[7] appealed to long-term debates on civil war, secession and third-party involvement in internal armed conflicts.[8] The liberal government pointed to the distinction of factual and legal aspects of recognition, highlighted commercial interests and the need for legal certainty for private persons.[9] Catholic opponents thought this attitude possibly endorsed endless Italian irredentism.
I will use classical law of nations doctrine (Klüber,[10] Martens,[11] Vattel[12]), as well as the digitized Catholic Journal de Bruxelles and the liberal Indépendance Belge to map the various positions on a continuum between constitutional and international law.  The nationality principle was taken as the starting point for many legal reasonings in the generation of the Institut de Droit International, which was close to Belgian doctrinal liberalism[13]. However, Catholic counter-arguments reverted back to the Spanish Neo-scholastics, as well as to positivist and horizontal conceptions of the law of nations.
Bibliography
Armitage D, Civil Wars: A History in Ideas (YUP New Haven and London 2017)
Clark C and Kaiser W (eds.), Culture Wars: Secular-Clerical Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge University Press 2003)
Clough SB and Saladino S (eds.), A History of Modern Italy: Documents, Readings & Commentary (Columbia University Press 1968)
Crawford J, The Creation of States in International Law (Clarendon Press 2011)
Dhondt F, ‘Neutralité Permanente, Interprétations Mutantes: La Neutralité Belge à Travers Trois Traités de Juristes’ (2018) LXXXVI The Legal History Review 188
Dumoulin M, Les relations économiques italo-belges (1861-1914) (Palais des Académies 1990)
Jacquemyns G, Langrand-Dumonceau, Promoteur d’une puissance financière catholique (Université libre de Bruxelles 1960)
Jarrett M, The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon (IB Tauris 2013)
Klüber JL, Droit des gens moderne de l’Europe avec un supplément contenant une bibliothèque choisie du droit des gens (ed. A. Ott) (Guillaumin 1861)
Mamiani della Rovere T, Rights of Nations, or, the New Law of European States Applied to the Affairs of Italy (Roger Acton tr, Jeffs 1860)
Mancini PS, Diritto Internazionale (Prelezioni con un saggio sul Machiavelli) (Marghieri 1873)
Martens GF von, Précis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe, fondé sur les traités et l'usage; pour servir d'introduction à un cours politique et diplomatique (ed. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira) (Guillaimin 1864)
Frei G, Nir, Ariella and Van Hulle I, ‘The Foreign Enlistment Act, International Law, and British Politics, 1819-2014’ (2016) 38 International History Review 636
Nys E, ‘Notes Sur La Neutralité (Troisième Article)’ (1901) III (2e série) Revue de droit international et de législation comparée 15
——, L’état Indépendant Du Congo et Le Droit International (Hayez 1903)
Reconnaissance du Royaume d’Italie par la Belgique. Discussion de l’adresse à La Chambre des Représentants. Novembre 1861 (de Labroue et Mertens 1861)
Vattel E de, Le droit des gens ou principes de la loi naturelle (ed. P Pradier-Fodéré, Guillaumin 1863)
Witte E, Le Royaume perdu - Les orangistes belges contre la Révolution (1828-1850) (Éditions Samsa 2016)



[1] Reconnaissance du Royaume d’Italie par la Belgique. Discussion de l’adresse à La Chambre des Représentants. Novembre 1861 (de Labroue et Mertens 1861).
[2] C Clark and W Kaiser (eds.), Culture Wars: Secular-Clerical Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge University Press 2003).
[3] See Gabriela Frei, Nir, Ariella and Inge Van Hulle, ‘The Foreign Enlistment Act, International Law, and British Politics, 1819-2014’ (2016) 38 International History Review 636.           
[4] Guillaume Jacquemyns, Langrand-Dumonceau, Promoteur d’une puissance financière Catholique (Université libre de Bruxelles 1960).
[5] Shepard Bancroft Clough and Salvatore Saladino (eds.), A History of Modern Italy: Documents, Readings & Commentary (Columbia University Press 1968).
[6] Frederik Dhondt, ‘Neutralité Permanente, Interprétations Mutantes: La Neutralité Belge à Travers Trois Traités de Juristes’ (2018) LXXXVI Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis/Revue d’Histoire du Droit/The Legal History Review 188.
[7] Els Witte, Le Royaume Perdu - Les Orangistes Belges Contre La Révolution (1828-1850) (Éditions Samsa 2016).
[8] David Armitage, Civil Wars: A History in Ideas (YUP New Haven and London 2017); James Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Clarendon Press 2011).
[9] Michel Dumoulin, Les relations économiques italo-belges (1861-1914) (Palais des Académies 1990).
[10] Johann Ludwig Klüber, Droit des gens moderne de l’Europe avec un supplément contenant une bibliothèque choisie du droit des gens (ed. A. Ott) (Guillaumin 1861).
[11] Georg Friedrich von Martens, , Précis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe, fondé sur les traités et l'usage; pour servir d'introduction à un cours politique et diplomatique (ed. S. Pinheiro-Ferreira) (Guillaumin 1864). 
[12] Emer de Vattel, Le droit des gens ou principes de la loi naturelle (ed. P Pradier-Fodéré,) Guillaumin 1863).
[13] Ernest Nys, ‘Notes sur la neutralité (Troisième Article)’ (1901) III (2e série) Revue de droit international et de législation comparée 15; Ernest Nys, L’état Indépendant du Congo et le droit International (Hayez 1903). Pacquale Stanislao Mancini, Diritto Internazionale (Prelezioni con un saggio sul Machiavelli) (Marghieri 1873).

Entangled international and national legal orders

in the long 19th century 2-3 March 2020, University of Zurich


Monday, 2nd March 2020, room RAA-G-01, University of Zurich

14,15-14,30: Introductory remarks, Raphael Cahen (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), Frederik Dhondt (Vrije Universiteit Brussel/Antwerp University), Elisabetta Fiocchi Malaspina (University of Zurich)

14,30-15,15: Keynote by Andreas Thier (University of Zurich)

15,15-16,00: Frederik Dhondt, Legal arguments in the debate on recognition of Italian independence in Belgian parliament (November 1861) 

16,00-16,45: Pietro Costa (University of Florence), Nation-building and State-building in the ‘long’ Nineteenth Century: Identity Myths and Domination Strategies

16,45-17,15: Coffee Break

17,15-18,00: Raphael Cahen, Constitutional and international entanglements in nineteenth century: the case of the Litigation committee of the French foreign minister and his actors
(1835-1871)

18,00-18,45: Markus J. Prutsch (European Parliament/Heidelberg University), The “Vienna System” and the German Confederation: Stability, Sovereignty and Constitutionalism


Tuesday, 3rd March 2020room RAA-G-01, University of Zurich

9,00-9,45: Inge Van Hulle (Tilburg University), Plural normative orders and the negotiation of land rights in West Africa (1880-1920)

9,45-10,30: Lisa Ford (University of New South Wales), Sovereignty, Settlement and International Law: the case of Honduras

10,30-11,00: Coffee Break

11,30-11,45: Elisabetta Fiocchi Malaspina, Colonial and International Entanglements in Nineteenth-Century Legal Discourses on Land Law and Land Registration

11,45-12,15: Concluding remarks

Room RAA-G-01, University of Zurich, Rämistrasse 59